Molybdenum
Molybdenum (Mo) is an essential trace element required for human health [1]. It is not produced by the body and must be obtained through diet or supplementation. While it is naturally present in many foods, it is also available as a dietary supplement [1].
Chemical/Botanical Basics
Molybdenum is a metal with the atomic number 42. In biological systems, it is primarily found in the form of a complex known as the molybdenum cofactor (Moco) [2]. This cofactor is synthesized within the body and is necessary for the function of several crucial enzymes [1].
Mechanism of Action (MoA)
Molybdenum’s primary function is to act as a cofactor for four key enzymes in humans, which are collectively known as molybdopterin-dependent enzymes. These enzymes catalyze important chemical reactions involved in the metabolism of various compounds [1]:
- Sulfite Oxidase: Converts sulfite (a potentially toxic byproduct of sulfur-containing amino acid metabolism) to sulfate, which is then excreted [2]. This is considered the most critical function for human health.
- Xanthine Oxidase: Plays a role in purine metabolism, converting hypoxanthine to xanthine and then to uric acid [1].
- Aldehyde Oxidase: Involved in the metabolism of various aldehydes, drugs, and toxins [1].
- Mitochondrial Amidoxime Reducing Component (mARC): Also involved in the metabolism of drugs and toxins [1].
By supporting these enzymes, Molybdenum is essential for detoxification, waste product elimination, and the proper metabolism of vital compounds [3].
2. Chemical Composition/Key Bioactive Roles
The key bioactive form of Molybdenum is its complex with the organic molecule molybdopterin.
| Bioactive Role | Enzyme(s) | Function |
|---|---|---|
| Sulfur Metabolism | Sulfite Oxidase | Converts toxic sulfite to harmless sulfate, preventing neurological damage. |
| Purine Metabolism | Xanthine Oxidase | Catalyzes the final steps in uric acid production. |
| Detoxification/Drug Metabolism | Aldehyde Oxidase, mARC | Metabolizes various aldehydes, drugs, and heterocyclic compounds (e.g., purines, pyrimidines) [1]. |
| Copper Antagonism | Tetrathiomolybdate (TTM) | Molybdenum, particularly in the form of TTM, can strongly bind to copper, reducing its absorption and bioavailability, which is used therapeutically to treat copper toxicity (e.g., Wilson’s disease) [4, 5]. |
3. Health Benefits
Molybdenum’s health benefits are primarily derived from its essential role as an enzyme cofactor.
Essential Metabolic Support and Detoxification
Molybdenum is critical for the function of sulfite oxidase, which prevents the accumulation of toxic sulfite [2]. A rare genetic disorder, Molybdenum Cofactor Deficiency (MoCD), demonstrates the vital importance of this function. MoCD, caused by mutations that prevent Moco synthesis, leads to a buildup of sulfite, resulting in severe encephalopathy, intractable seizures, and usually death shortly after birth [6, 7].
Potential Role in Copper Regulation
Molybdenum exhibits a well-documented antagonistic relationship with copper [4]. This interaction is so strong that a specific molybdenum compound, tetrathiomolybdate (TTM), is used as a therapeutic agent to treat copper toxicity, such as in Wilson’s disease [5]. TTM works by forming a complex with copper, which prevents the body from absorbing and utilizing it. While this is a therapeutic application for toxicity, it highlights molybdenum’s potential to influence copper balance in the body [4].
Antioxidant and Anti-inflammatory Properties
Some preclinical and small human studies suggest that molybdenum may possess antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, potentially benefiting conditions like arthritis [8]. However, the evidence is not yet conclusive, and more robust clinical trials are needed to substantiate these claims [8].
4. Dosage and Usage
Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs)
The Food and Nutrition Board (FNB) of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine has established the following RDAs for Molybdenum [1]:
| Age Group | RDA (mcg/day) |
|---|---|
| Infants (0–6 months) | 2 (Adequate Intake, AI) |
| Infants (7–12 months) | 3 (AI) |
| Children (1–3 years) | 17 |
| Children (4–8 years) | 22 |
| Children (9–13 years) | 34 |
| Adolescents (14–18 years) | 43 |
| Adults (19+ years) | 45 |
| Pregnancy | 50 |
| Lactation | 50 |
Food Sources
Molybdenum is widely available in the diet, and most Americans consume adequate amounts [1]. The richest sources are [1]:
- Legumes (e.g., black-eyed peas, lima beans)
- Whole Grains
- Nuts
- Beef Liver
- Leafy Vegetables
Supplementation
Molybdenum supplements are available alone or as part of multivitamin/mineral products, with amounts typically ranging from 50 mcg to 500 mcg [1]. Common forms include sodium molybdate, molybdenum glycinate, and molybdenum amino acid chelate [1].
5. Safety and Precautions
Molybdenum is generally considered safe when consumed at recommended levels. The body efficiently excretes excess molybdenum in the urine, which minimizes the risk of toxicity [1].
Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs)
The FNB has established the following Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs) for Molybdenum, based on levels associated with adverse effects in animal studies [1]:
| Age Group | UL (mcg/day) |
|---|---|
| Children (1–3 years) | 300 |
| Children (4–8 years) | 600 |
| Children (9–13 years) | 1,100 |
| Adolescents (14–18 years) | 1,700 |
| Adults (19+ years) | 2,000 (2 mg) |
| Pregnancy/Lactation | 1,700–2,000 |
Side Effects and Toxicity
Serious Warning:
- Gout-like Symptoms: Excessive intake of molybdenum (e.g., 10–15 mg/day, far exceeding the UL) has been reported to cause gout-like symptoms (achy joints) and abnormally high blood levels of uric acid in populations with high environmental exposure, such as in parts of Armenia [1, 9].
- Copper Deficiency Risk: Very high intakes of molybdenum can induce a secondary copper deficiency, particularly in animals, due to the strong copper-molybdenum antagonism [10]. While rare in humans from diet alone, excessive supplementation could theoretically pose a risk.
Contraindications and Drug Interactions
- Contraindications: There are no known absolute contraindications for molybdenum supplementation at recommended dosages, other than in individuals with a known allergy or sensitivity.
- Drug Interactions: Molybdenum has no known severe, serious, or moderate interactions with common drugs [11]. However, individuals taking copper-reducing therapies (e.g., for Wilson’s disease) should consult a physician, as molybdenum can interfere with copper metabolism [4].
6. References
The following sources were used to compile this information:
[1] Office of Dietary Supplements, National Institutes of Health. Molybdenum – Health Professional Fact Sheet. https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Molybdenum-HealthProfessional/[2] Novotny, J. A., & Peterson, C. A. (2018). Molybdenum. Advances in Nutrition, 9(5), 676–677. https://doi.org/10.1093/advances/nmy040[3] Healthline. Why Molybdenum Is an Essential Nutrient. https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/molybdenum[4] Suttle, N. F. (2010). Molybdenum-copper antagonism in animals and man: a historical perspective. Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology, 24(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtemb.2009.08.001[5] Kaler, S. G. (2017). Wilson Disease and Molybdenum. Seminars in Liver Disease, 37(04), 346–355. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0037-1607062[6] Misko, A., & Kaler, S. G. (2023). Molybdenum Cofactor Deficiency. In GeneReviews®. University of Washington, Seattle. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK575630/[7] Nagappa, M., Bindu, P. S., Taly, A. B., Sinha, S., & Bharath, R. D. (2015). Child neurology: Molybdenum cofactor deficiency. Neurology, 85(24), e193–e196. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000002194[8] University of Rochester Medical Center. Molybdenum. https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content?contenttypeid=19&contentid=Molybdenum[9] Dror, Y., & Stern, F. (2018). Molybdenum. In Trace Elements and Minerals in Health and Longevity (pp. 165–173). Springer, Cham. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-03742-0_7[10] Novotny, J. A., & Peterson, C. A. (2018). Molybdenum. Advances in Nutrition, 9(5), 676–677. https://doi.org/10.1093/advances/nmy040[11] RxList. Molybdenum. https://www.rxlist.com/molybdenum/generic-drug.htmCategory: Mineral
